Outbreak investigation and identification of risk factors associated with the occurrence of foot and mouth disease in Punjab, Pakistan.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of domesticated and wild ruminants and pigs that causes enormous economic losses through morbidity, mortality, and trade restrictions. Although the disease is endemic in Pakistan, seasonal outbreaks occur every year throughout the country. This study aimed to investigate FMD outbreaks and to identify the risk factors associated with FMD outbreaks between January and April 2019 in the Punjab province. We performed outbreak investigations (n = 64) for FMD in nine districts of the Punjab province through Divisional Disease Diagnostic Laboratories, Livestock and Dairy Development Department Punjab. Subsequently, we conducted a case-control study including 128 livestock farms (case to control ratio = 1). The data on various plausibly associated factors were collected using a structured questionnaire from each farm. The FMD outbreaks started during the month of January, culminated in February (n = 36, 56.25%) and stopped during the month of April 2019. The most common serotype was O (45.83%), followed by Asia1 (29.17%) and A (13.89%); however, some case farms had mixed infection with serotypes A and O (9.72%) and serotypes O and Asia1 (1.39%). Multivariable analysis revealed that the history of introducing a new animal with unknown FMD vaccination status in the herd (OR =11.51, 95% CI = 3.28 - 40.47), not practicing regular vaccination against FMD (OR = 20.81, 95% CI = 4.59 - 94.35), history of the visit of an animal broker (OR = 9.06, 95% CI = 2.31 - 35.61), distance of the farm to a nearby livestock farm (OR = 6.13, 95% CI = 1.39 - 27.01) and large herd size (OR = 20.79, 95% CI = 2.45 - 176.27) were significantly associated with the occurrence of FMD outbreaks in Punjab province during 2019. In conclusion, improving biosecurity measures, avoiding the introduction of animals without FMD vaccination history and regular vaccination against FMD can significantly reduce the occurrence of the disease on livestock farms in Pakistan.

Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Pakistan: a neglected disease needing one health strategy.

BACKGROUND: Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL) is a neglected tropical disease, which mainly affects poor communities. It is one of the major vector-borne disease and endemic in Pakistan. METHODS: A case-control study to evaluate potential risk factors of human-CL was conducted in Khewra region, District Jhelum, Pakistan from January-April 2014. Case data about 90 cases registered during October 2012 to November 2013 was retrieved from Municipal Hospital. Controls were matched (1,1 ratio) on the date of registration with cases from same hospital. Both cases and controls were invited to participate and data was collected in a face-to-face interview. A prospective study of canine leishmaniasis (canine-CL) was also conducted at Civil Veterinary Hospital in the same area. Suspected dogs with skin ulceration signs were included in the study and blood samples were collected. Statistical analyses were conducted to determine association between various parameters and outcome of interest. RESULTS: The ages of cases ranged from 1 to 76 years (median = 15 years) and proved to be protective factor i.e. increase in each year in age reduced the likelihood of being infected with human-CL [Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.4, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 0.25-0.76]. People sleeping outsides in an open area were more likely to become a case (OR = 8.7, 95% CI = 2.90-26.37) than a control. Poor sanitary condition inside the house (OR = 3.3, 95% CI 1.03-10.56) and presence of other animals in house (livestock, poultry) (OR = 3.6, 95% CI = 1.07-12.12) also identified as risk factors of high significance. The proportion of positive dogs with canine-CL was 21.05% and was significantly associated with human-CL cases in the same area (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: We concluded that adopting self-protections measures against sand-fly, and maintaining good hygiene may lower the risk of human-CL. One-Health Strategy is suggested to control leishmaniasis in human and dog population.